+0.51 Russian opposition leader Navalny dupes spy into revealing how he was poisoned (www.cnn.com S:-0.30 )
783 points by antfarm 1895 days ago | 248 comments on HN | Moderate positive Editorial · v3.7 · 2026-02-28 12:31:12
Summary Political Persecution & Right to Life Advocates
This CNN investigation documents the 2020 poisoning of Russian opposition leader Alexey Navalny, employing journalistic scrutiny to expose alleged state-sponsored violence and assassination attempt. Editorial content advocates for accountability and affirms rights to life and free expression. However, the hosting platform's extensive user tracking infrastructure and commercial ad system create structural tension—the article promoting freedom and protection operates within a system that surveils users for profit, undermining the privacy and autonomy rights the journalism implicitly defends.
Article Heatmap
Preamble: +0.08 — Preamble P Article 1: ND — Freedom, Equality, Brotherhood Article 1: No Data — Freedom, Equality, Brotherhood 1 Article 2: +0.50 — Non-Discrimination 2 Article 3: +0.60 — Life, Liberty, Security 3 Article 4: ND — No Slavery Article 4: No Data — No Slavery 4 Article 5: ND — No Torture Article 5: No Data — No Torture 5 Article 6: ND — Legal Personhood Article 6: No Data — Legal Personhood 6 Article 7: ND — Equality Before Law Article 7: No Data — Equality Before Law 7 Article 8: ND — Right to Remedy Article 8: No Data — Right to Remedy 8 Article 9: ND — No Arbitrary Detention Article 9: No Data — No Arbitrary Detention 9 Article 10: ND — Fair Hearing Article 10: No Data — Fair Hearing 10 Article 11: ND — Presumption of Innocence Article 11: No Data — Presumption of Innocence 11 Article 12: ND — Privacy Article 12: No Data — Privacy 12 Article 13: ND — Freedom of Movement Article 13: No Data — Freedom of Movement 13 Article 14: ND — Asylum Article 14: No Data — Asylum 14 Article 15: ND — Nationality Article 15: No Data — Nationality 15 Article 16: ND — Marriage & Family Article 16: No Data — Marriage & Family 16 Article 17: ND — Property Article 17: No Data — Property 17 Article 18: ND — Freedom of Thought Article 18: No Data — Freedom of Thought 18 Article 19: +0.25 — Freedom of Expression 19 Article 20: ND — Assembly & Association Article 20: No Data — Assembly & Association 20 Article 21: ND — Political Participation Article 21: No Data — Political Participation 21 Article 22: ND — Social Security Article 22: No Data — Social Security 22 Article 23: ND — Work & Equal Pay Article 23: No Data — Work & Equal Pay 23 Article 24: ND — Rest & Leisure Article 24: No Data — Rest & Leisure 24 Article 25: ND — Standard of Living Article 25: No Data — Standard of Living 25 Article 26: ND — Education Article 26: No Data — Education 26 Article 27: ND — Cultural Participation Article 27: No Data — Cultural Participation 27 Article 28: ND — Social & International Order Article 28: No Data — Social & International Order 28 Article 29: ND — Duties to Community Article 29: No Data — Duties to Community 29 Article 30: ND — No Destruction of Rights Article 30: No Data — No Destruction of Rights 30
Negative Neutral Positive No Data
Aggregates
Editorial Mean +0.51 Structural Mean -0.30
Weighted Mean +0.38 Unweighted Mean +0.36
Max +0.60 Article 3 Min +0.08 Preamble
Signal 4 No Data 27
Volatility 0.20 (Medium)
Negative 0 Channels E: 0.6 S: 0.4
SETL +0.61 Editorial-dominant
FW Ratio 50% 18 facts · 18 inferences
Evidence 7% coverage
3M 3L 27 ND
Theme Radar
Foundation Security Legal Privacy & Movement Personal Expression Economic & Social Cultural Order & Duties Foundation: 0.29 (2 articles) Security: 0.60 (1 articles) Legal: 0.00 (0 articles) Privacy & Movement: 0.00 (0 articles) Personal: 0.00 (0 articles) Expression: 0.25 (1 articles) Economic & Social: 0.00 (0 articles) Cultural: 0.00 (0 articles) Order & Duties: 0.00 (0 articles)
HN Discussion 19 top-level · 31 replies
antfarm 2020-12-21 15:04 UTC link
First class social engineering.
asats 2020-12-21 15:06 UTC link
If you haven't seen the full investigation released last week I'd strongly recommend you check it out, top notch investigative journalism. The video has English subtitles: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=smhi6jts97I

Also here's the full phone call with the FSB agent, with english transcript: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gwvA49ZXnf8

viggity 2020-12-21 15:25 UTC link
ChrisMarshallNY 2020-12-21 15:35 UTC link
OW.

That spy is likely to experience "health problems," sooner or later...

bigbizisverywyz 2020-12-21 15:37 UTC link
I'm constantly impressed and amazed at how brave that man is, and the other people in Russia who are opposing what seems to have become a totalitarian thug state.
ulnarkressty 2020-12-21 15:57 UTC link
I think one of the more interesting tidbits of the investigation is how they managed to find the agents that were following him using black-market mobile phone records from corrupt policemen. These were only available due to a law allowing police to have access to private data, and apparently pretty commonly used by jealous spouses to spy on their SO.

A glimpse of the future for those supporting these kinds of laws because they have nothing to hide.

EDIT: After watching / reading the article and also the comments about parallel construction, there is indeed an inordinate amount of information being just there for the taking.

The BBC did a documentary on this intelligence black market some time ago[0], which shows the magnitude of it. I can't really imagine how it's like living over there, think 4-chan-on-steroids levels of doxxing that can be unleashed by anyone with some petty cash.

[0] https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-48348307

SXX 2020-12-21 16:00 UTC link
BTW I also strongly recommend to check the investigation since it's amazing example of how state surveillance and weak privacy can end up playing against the state.

We all live in the world where telecoms spy on everyone's location and where travel information is accessible to unlimited number of people (it's super easy to get air travel info in western countries too). It's just funny how adding a bit of corruption can completely compromise state's own spy agency.

ksm1717 2020-12-21 16:01 UTC link
Confused about “Hi it’s CNN here, would you like to tell us about the attempted murder you were part of?” Then only realizing for the last contact that that approach may not work.
whalesalad 2020-12-21 16:26 UTC link
This guy is a complete badass. They've tried to kill him multiple times and then he turns around and bamboozles them into giving up all the details? Brilliant.
legohead 2020-12-21 16:54 UTC link
How did this toxins guy keep getting ahold of Navalny's underpants?

First he had to have access to them to put poison. Then he later got access to them again to scrub them clean of the poison. I guess Navalny has no security whatsoever where he stays?

LockAndLol 2020-12-21 16:57 UTC link
Well... what's going to happen now? Nobody really believes there will be consequences, right?
eshack94 2020-12-21 17:02 UTC link
I wouldn't be surprised if that guy (Konstantin Kudryavtsev) also gets taken out by the Kremlin in the coming days/weeks.
keyme 2020-12-21 17:50 UTC link
Two meta but interesting things to note:

1) A trained FSB operative completely fell for a convincing enough social engineer, armed with nothing but caller-id spoofing software. Even though he was extremely apprehensive in the beginning of the call, he was slowly "eased into" talking top-secret stuff on the non-secure phoneline. This was so incredible that his last words on the call were "I was shocked by your questions. Was this OK that we talked about this on a non-secure line?". That's crazy. What chance do normal people have against such a good social engineer?

2) The amount of pro-Putin commenters in this thread (mind that some of these comments are dead), claiming that this is a CIA false flag or some such.

bredren 2020-12-21 18:08 UTC link
I can't tell if the investigative journalism is that amazing, or if the FSB tradecraft is so embarrassingly bad.

If another world power was investigated over a potential assassination and had such lax control over civilian personal data, would it be as easy to derive the chain of command and movements of their agents?

Would the cover identities be so shoddily arranged as to use the surnames of their spouses to make them easier to remember?

Or is this unique to Russia and this particular organization of the FSB.

Similarly, regarding the ongoing Solarwind attack, what is the tradecraft of the folks involved in that mission. Not only their opsec but in their own personal coms? Will we see an independent investigation that reveals the calls and networks of the hackers?

Bakary 2020-12-21 18:10 UTC link
It always amazes that some people have the balls to live like this and stand for something, whereas many of us here lead comparatively chickenshit lives centered around MRR, pageviews or "lessons learned" posts for some superfluous software service.

Navalny isn't alone in this; I get the same reaction when I hear about teenagers lying about their age to go to war, or activists spending decades in prison and continuing to fight as soon as they leave, or even Hannibal crossing the Alps. Independently of whether the overarching cause is rational or beneficial or not, these acts of living are almost completely alien to the sensibilities of a modern day worker in an industrialized attention economy.

krick 2020-12-21 18:44 UTC link
Just listened to the phone call.

I said it multiple times how ridiculous I find that so many people readily buy into these stories. But... I don't know now, this was pretty convincing, to be honest. Not really a "proof" of anything, of course — this guy could be anyone, and of course it is really weird how he didn't recognize Navalny's voice and talked about all this stuff over the insecure line... But I can believe that. I mean, if it was fake, it was some really impressive fake, with much better script and acting than anything I can now remember. My biggest issue was believing that people doing important stuff in FSS can really be useless idiots, and this was such a convincing portrayal of such an idiot that I'm starting to accept it.

Anyway, I'm looking forward to hear more of that story.

dariosalvi78 2020-12-21 19:34 UTC link
My understanding is that Russian secret services don't even try to hide it, it's probably something they are proud of and to be exposed to the nation to show the great power of zar Putin.
timka 2020-12-22 09:53 UTC link
Oh, come on! This is ridiculous.

Any silovik worth his salt would refuse to discuss such a hot topic over an open line. Also, some people noticed their talk is not even close to how two professionals both working in the kontora would speak. And how come 'the spy' didn't recognize his target's voice and manner of speaking? How come he didn't cross check 'the assistant' with his boss?

Not to mention that Navalny having such information about FSB agents means he's got some suspicious connections. Wouldn't he go to jail for this when he's back to Russia?

AtlasBarfed 2020-12-22 17:50 UTC link
I really like that org chart of blame.

Org charts with names and faces should accompany a far wider range of malfeasance. I get this is a nice, cute, morally unambiguous story against a state enemy so CNN can do this, but there are many environmental disasters and domestic political decisions that can be traced up and down the chain.

It would be great for things like DDT, the petroleum industry denying their own global warming studies, tobacco denying their own cancer studies.

konart 2020-12-21 15:40 UTC link
Highly unlikely honestly. Right now the general infantilism in Russia make investigations and headlines quite meaningless (not _meaningless_ but they really don't do much in short term).

Youtube video will get huge amount of likes and views. But that's it.

GVIrish 2020-12-21 15:47 UTC link
May develop a bad case of defenestration. Kinda stunning how bad that guy's opsec was, but on the other hand Putin wants people to know he was behind the assassination, otherwise he wouldn't have used Novichok. So maybe those involved don't feel the need to be super cagey about it.
gk1 2020-12-21 15:49 UTC link
And here's the specific video where he speaks with the FSB agent: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ibqiet6Bg38
runawaybottle 2020-12-21 15:55 UTC link
Become? It’s Russia’s pedigree for what will be close to a century soon.
lvs 2020-12-21 15:57 UTC link
This link describes being in the room for the call and should perhaps be considered primary.
breck 2020-12-21 16:06 UTC link
This is amazing journalism. Bravo to them and Navalny. Heroic stuff.
asats 2020-12-21 16:15 UTC link
As I understand it that apartment visit happened after the call in question. This call happened last week before the release of the first investigation and they sat on it for a week before releasing
jonny_eh 2020-12-21 16:21 UTC link
You've made a great case for it.
hengheng 2020-12-21 16:22 UTC link
The solution would then be to make all phone records public to avoid the black market issue, and I know that my parents wouldn't find anything wrong with that.
kodah 2020-12-21 16:23 UTC link
The people who promote anti-privacy will be stuck there I think. You know, until something awful happens to them. I think this has turned into a cultural issue unfortunately, and once it's culture all reason, sensibility, and middleground is lost.
SXX 2020-12-21 16:32 UTC link
Fortunately it's still not a totalitarian state. It's just an authoritarian kleptocracy where due to rampaging corruption everyone can buy spy agency staff phone billing and banking data for few hundred dollars.
roveo 2020-12-21 17:11 UTC link
The second part of your question is answered in the video: police/FSB came to the hospital and snatched his clothes to do the cleanup.

The first part we'll never know, but he really has no security and it is known that he's always the only tenant of his hotel room. Might have come into his room in the morning and sprayed them with Novichok while he was showering.

dilyevsky 2020-12-21 17:14 UTC link
They got in his hotel room while he was out
danaliv 2020-12-21 17:56 UTC link
> How did this toxins guy keep getting ahold of Navalny’s underpants?

Thanks for the spit-take. Note to self: put underpants in same security category as my phone.

jmnicolas 2020-12-21 18:11 UTC link
> The amount of pro-Putin commenters

Exercising my self judgement doesn't make me pro Putin, nor does it make me a conspiracy theorist when I wonder why the flu killed more people in France in one month (jan 2017) than COVID in 10 months.

I have a brain, I use it. Maybe sometimes I come to the wrong conclusion but at least I don't just regurgitate what the media feeds me.

So in this case I find strange that the super Russian spies never manage to kill anyone even when they use military grade chemical agents that are supposed to kill full cities (remember the Skripal case, this one was fishy as hell too).

blueblisters 2020-12-21 18:14 UTC link
Incredible. The man manages to remain composed while his assassin describes how his murder was planned.
nindalf 2020-12-21 18:33 UTC link
This is not unexpected. In Obama’s memoir he mentioned that Chinese security services would send people to comb the rooms of every member of the American delegation right after they left their room in the morning. If state security services can do that to the US President and his advisors, I see no reason the Russians security can’t do that to someone like Navalny.
ClumsyPilot 2020-12-21 18:48 UTC link
Most folks are afraid to tell their boss he is being an ass.
shalmanese 2020-12-21 18:55 UTC link
> A glimpse of the future for those supporting these kinds of laws because they have nothing to hide.

This has been the reality in China for a while now and the result has been... largely fine. eg: This Reuter's piece from 2018 where you could get a picture of anyone's face for $1USD and a copy of their phone records for 50c: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-dataprivacy/data-du...

Like, if you ask a representative sample of people living in China what they feel the top 10 pros and cons of living in China were, that all of their personal information is for sale for a few bucks would not make it onto many people's lists on either side, it doesn't really affect your day to day life.

There are a lot of theoretical privacy attacks that sound scarily creepy but privacy advocates tend to play up the hypothetical and not look at how empirically impactful such things end up being.

ClumsyPilot 2020-12-21 18:55 UTC link
The amount of 'western' data that was leaked, stoled or plain lost is trully staggering. I would be surprised if you could not expose at least some operatives
sto_hristo 2020-12-21 19:00 UTC link
Do you think geniuses work for those services? They are perma drunk simpletons that are no good for anything higher than beating up a person. Add the fear they harbor from their psycho superiors and if you push them right, they will fall that easy.
londons_explore 2020-12-21 19:05 UTC link
If Joe Biden called you up now and demanded to know about some work you did 3 years ago, yet claimed to be someone high up your chain of command and gave a fake name, would you fall for it?

I don't think you would... The voice alone would give it away. There's no way the leader of the opposition isn't famous enough to be recognisable on the phone...

sto_hristo 2020-12-21 19:05 UTC link
They had people on him all the time. When you have full time coverage of the person and the authorities are on your side, it's only a matter of time when an opportunity opens when he is separated from his luggage and do the deed.
Const-me 2020-12-21 19:54 UTC link
Not sure about that. A Russian guy who poisoned Litvinenko with radioactive polonium in London was then promoted to a member of state parliament: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrey_Lugovoy
ardy42 2020-12-21 20:13 UTC link
> I think one of the more interesting tidbits of the investigation is how they managed to find the agents that were following him using black-market mobile phone records from corrupt policemen. These were only available due to a law allowing police to have access to private data, and apparently pretty commonly used by jealous spouses to spy on their SO.

> A glimpse of the future for those supporting these kinds of laws because they have nothing to hide.

I don't think that's necessarily true, because pervasive and tolerated corruption is required to get an end state like that. If a country has "[those] kinds of laws," but unlawful access is investigated and prosecuted, then the data will remain (more or less) restricted to police and government investigators.

So, even though you still have to worry about the police and government abusing the data, as well as certain powerful or connected people, you won't have to worry so much about stuff like your SO buying your phone records for $10.

asats 2020-12-21 21:12 UTC link
The belligncat guy just did an interview and mentioned that some of the other guys immediately recognized Navalny's voice and hung up: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eCGHepzBzUc

The one they got to talk was in the cleanup crew, so probably not as familiar with him.

Nemerie 2020-12-21 23:30 UTC link
As for the first one, I think the reason was that Navalny called him after the investigation and clearly showed at the beginning of the conversation that he knew a lot of secret things, including the surnames of the other agents, facts on when and where they were, etc. Probably, the FSB guy just couldn't believe that there was a chance that a person who doesn't work for the government could be so aware of the details of the operation.
ymolodtsov 2020-12-22 08:09 UTC link
There's a reason authoritarian regimes mostly represent failed states, with maybe a few exceptions. If your regime has a negative effect on education, healthcare, administrative roles, why would the security services remain cold-blooded professionals? There's negative selection at every part of this system.
Abimelex 2020-12-22 14:00 UTC link
"unfortunately" it's just a matter of time til they get this under control using governmental encryption and detailed access logs.
Abimelex 2020-12-22 14:09 UTC link
The nice thing of obedience is, that if the (assumed) boss tells you to skip the protocol you do so. Especially if the shit is burning...
hongsy 2020-12-22 14:36 UTC link
I guess you haven't seen the full investigation released last week. I'd strongly recommend you check it out, it shows how much investigation they did before Navalny took action.

https://youtu.be/smhi6jts97I

Editorial Channel
What the content says
+0.65
Article 19 Freedom of Expression
Medium Advocacy Framing Practice
Editorial
+0.65
SETL
+0.81

Investigative journalism into government poisoning exemplifies free press function; reporting on evidence disclosure affirms freedom of expression and right to information; content body unavailable prevents comprehensive assessment

+0.60
Article 3 Life, Liberty, Security
Medium Advocacy
Editorial
+0.60
SETL
ND

Poisoning as assassination attempt directly engages right to life; reporting on this event affirms the right through investigation and documentation

+0.50
Article 2 Non-Discrimination
Low Advocacy
Editorial
+0.50
SETL
ND

Investigation into poisoning of political opposition figure implies recognition of state-sponsored discrimination; content insufficient for full assessment

+0.30
Preamble Preamble
Low Advocacy Framing
Editorial
+0.30
SETL
+0.41

Article title invokes investigation into poisoning, implicitly affirming human dignity and protection from state violence; minimal body text provided limits full assessment

ND
Article 1 Freedom, Equality, Brotherhood

Insufficient content

ND
Article 4 No Slavery

Insufficient content

ND
Article 5 No Torture

Insufficient content

ND
Article 6 Legal Personhood

Insufficient content

ND
Article 7 Equality Before Law

Insufficient content

ND
Article 8 Right to Remedy

Insufficient content

ND
Article 9 No Arbitrary Detention

Insufficient content

ND
Article 10 Fair Hearing

Insufficient content

ND
Article 11 Presumption of Innocence

Insufficient content

ND
Article 12 Privacy
Medium Practice

Insufficient content

ND
Article 13 Freedom of Movement

Insufficient content

ND
Article 14 Asylum

Insufficient content

ND
Article 15 Nationality

Insufficient content

ND
Article 16 Marriage & Family

Insufficient content

ND
Article 17 Property

Insufficient content

ND
Article 18 Freedom of Thought

Insufficient content

ND
Article 20 Assembly & Association

Insufficient content

ND
Article 21 Political Participation

Insufficient content

ND
Article 22 Social Security

Insufficient content

ND
Article 23 Work & Equal Pay

Insufficient content

ND
Article 24 Rest & Leisure

Insufficient content

ND
Article 25 Standard of Living

Insufficient content

ND
Article 26 Education

Insufficient content

ND
Article 27 Cultural Participation
Low Practice

Insufficient content

ND
Article 28 Social & International Order

Insufficient content

ND
Article 29 Duties to Community

Insufficient content

ND
Article 30 No Destruction of Rights

Insufficient content

Structural Channel
What the site does
-0.25
Preamble Preamble
Low Advocacy Framing
Structural
-0.25
Context Modifier
ND
SETL
+0.41

Site embeds article within commercial advertising and tracking infrastructure; privacy-invasive data collection undermines user autonomy and dignity

-0.35
Article 19 Freedom of Expression
Medium Advocacy Framing Practice
Structural
-0.35
Context Modifier
ND
SETL
+0.81

Editorial independence undermined by extensive ad-tracking infrastructure; commercial data collection creates institutional conflicts of interest with journalistic integrity; user surveillance contradicts information freedom principles

ND
Article 1 Freedom, Equality, Brotherhood

Not observable

ND
Article 2 Non-Discrimination
Low Advocacy

Not assessed due to truncated content

ND
Article 3 Life, Liberty, Security
Medium Advocacy

Not assessed

ND
Article 4 No Slavery

Not observable

ND
Article 5 No Torture

Not observable

ND
Article 6 Legal Personhood

Not observable

ND
Article 7 Equality Before Law

Not observable

ND
Article 8 Right to Remedy

Not observable

ND
Article 9 No Arbitrary Detention

Not observable

ND
Article 10 Fair Hearing

Not observable

ND
Article 11 Presumption of Innocence

Not observable

ND
Article 12 Privacy
Medium Practice

Page implements surveillance tracking through ad feedback forms, data URIs, and tracking parameters without explicit privacy protection disclosure; user data collected for commercial targeting

ND
Article 13 Freedom of Movement

Not observable

ND
Article 14 Asylum

Not observable

ND
Article 15 Nationality

Not observable

ND
Article 16 Marriage & Family

Not observable

ND
Article 17 Property

Not observable

ND
Article 18 Freedom of Thought

Not observable

ND
Article 20 Assembly & Association

Not observable

ND
Article 21 Political Participation

Not observable

ND
Article 22 Social Security

Not observable

ND
Article 23 Work & Equal Pay

Not observable

ND
Article 24 Rest & Leisure

Not observable

ND
Article 25 Standard of Living

Not observable

ND
Article 26 Education

Not observable

ND
Article 27 Cultural Participation
Low Practice

Complex navigation structure and ad overlays create barriers to accessing cultural content; usability compromised by commercial ad system

ND
Article 28 Social & International Order

Not observable

ND
Article 29 Duties to Community

Not observable

ND
Article 30 No Destruction of Rights

Not observable

Supplementary Signals
How this content communicates, beyond directional lean. Learn more
Epistemic Quality
How well-sourced and evidence-based is this content?
0.39 medium claims
Sources
0.5
Evidence
0.3
Uncertainty
0.3
Purpose
0.5
Propaganda Flags
1 manipulative rhetoric technique found
1 techniques detected
loaded language
Title uses 'dupes Russian spy'—informal language framing deception with implicit moral judgment of the spy's conduct
Emotional Tone
Emotional character: positive/negative, intensity, authority
measured
Valence
+0.3
Arousal
0.5
Dominance
0.3
Transparency
Does the content identify its author and disclose interests?
0.25
✗ Author
More signals: context, framing & audience
Solution Orientation
Does this content offer solutions or only describe problems?
0.35 problem only
Reader Agency
0.3
Stakeholder Voice
Whose perspectives are represented in this content?
0.38 2 perspectives
Speaks: individuals
About: governmentmilitary_security
Temporal Framing
Is this content looking backward, at the present, or forward?
present immediate
Geographic Scope
What geographic area does this content cover?
regional
Russia, Europe
Complexity
How accessible is this content to a general audience?
moderate low jargon general
Audit Trail 7 entries
2026-02-28 12:31 eval Evaluated by claude-haiku-4-5-20251001: +0.38 (Moderate positive)
2026-02-28 11:58 eval_success Lite evaluated: Moderate positive (0.50) - -
2026-02-28 11:58 eval Evaluated by llama-3.3-70b-wai: +0.50 (Moderate positive)
2026-02-28 11:58 rater_validation_warn Lite validation warnings for model llama-3.3-70b-wai: 0W 1R - -
2026-02-28 11:53 eval_success Lite evaluated: Moderate positive (0.36) - -
2026-02-28 11:53 eval Evaluated by llama-4-scout-wai: +0.36 (Moderate positive)
2026-02-28 11:53 rater_validation_warn Lite validation warnings for model llama-4-scout-wai: 0W 1R - -